Mission Statement of Nokia Essay

Nokia Corporation defines its mission to connect people through mobile phone technology and quotes its mission statement as follows; â€Å"Our strategic intent is to build great mobile products our job is to enable billions of people everywhere to get connected.† Operations Management Mission of Nokia: Nokia Goals and objectives in the market are as follows: To build great mobile products. To help people feel near to what matters to them. To enable billions of people to get more of life’s opportunities through mobiles. To capture volume and value growth to connect the next billion people to the Internet in developing growth markets. OM Department Mission of Nokia: Product design: Nokia cares about developing products that meet specific need of its customers. Thus for example, all the products of Business Solution mode are tailored to the requirement of specific entrepreneur seeking the  optimal solution for him. While in mobile phone section, the lifestyle of the target group is also analyzed. Quality Management: As the customer is the driving force in Nokia, so managing the quality is started with familiar with customer requirements and then processes are continuously improved according to the feedback received from the customers. Process Design: Nokia has design the capacity to ensure meeting all the demand (capacity built in view of demand supports the credibility of Nokia). Location: As a global company, Nokia operates in over 130 countries with the headquartered in Espoo in Finland, in the origins of Nokia. To create cutting edge technologies, it carries out researches in technologically advanced countries. Moreover, according to its diversity and location policy, Nokia wants to cooperate with companies form different locations as gaining new markets is one of the company’s goals. Layout Design: Nokia as an international company also uses global manufacturing network that gives them the ability to respond quickly to changes in demand and technology. They have suppliers in all parts of the world so that they can easily introduce changes to their processes and the utilization of resources is optimal. Human Resources: One of the Nokia strength is the employees. That’s why it aims to create them the best working environment and growth opportunities. It conducts several programs to encourage them to submit their own ideas and contribute to the company’s growth such as  ´Listening to You ´ annual survey or conducted by intranet â€Å"Ask HR† that gives a quick and openly published response for all queries. Supply Chain Management: Nokia’s supply chain includes direct sourcing (material supply for Nokia products, such as components, parts, packaging, contract manufacturing, software development, and research and development) and indirect sourcing (office equipment, services etc.) Inventory: Thanks to joint ventures and close cooperation with their supplier, Nokia can optimize their inventory levels. The suppliers as Nokia partners also participate in product development process, what helps better assess the needs of the future production. Efficient management of the inventory is also supported by the diversification of the location of suppliers. Moreover Nokia builds its inventory in view of demand, minimum levels of the inventory has to be maintained. Scheduling: Average life cycle of a mobile phone is about 2 years and during one year many new models are introduced. That’s why production of one line of products is done simultaneously with the research and design process of new products. Scheduling and taking measures in anticipation of new ventures is in this case a critical issue. Maintenance: Providing training and development for their employees is one of the Nokia’s promises. They pay much attention to be in touch with all new technologies and maintained the high level of well trained staff.

Mussolini’s Relationship with Hitler

There were many similarities between Mussolini and Hitler even though the two exhibited some differences. Having risen to power earlier, in the 1920s, Mussolini was the senior between the two and had a great influence on Hitler. Hitler saw in him a teacher who helped him shape his policies. The two however had individual characteristics that made their lives quite different. As much as Hitler went to school and graduated as a fine art student, Mussolini was self – educated (Trifkovic 1993). The latter had a larger than life approach to life and he wanted to be perceived as a superman by the people. In this way he would fake pictures portraying him as a master of various skills including a pilot, wrestler etc. On the other hand Hitler had a less colorful view of life. He was more successful in battle; being able to win majority of the wars that he staged against his enemies. In this way Germany was able to conquer other nations. As much as his friend found it easy to conquer other nations due to his early war experience and the huge army back at home; Mussolini had a difficult time in winning battles. In most of the battles he had to depend on the assistance of the Germans in order to become victorious (Carpi 1994). The two leaders were nevertheless hungry for power and were inclined to totalitarian leadership. They both had been wounded in battle and had almost taken a similar avenue to power (Hayes 1995). There election promise to restore hope and help solve the unemployment problem earned them the support and sympathy from the majority voters. In some way they did not fail as both German and Italy significantly reduced the levels of unemployment in the initial years of their leadership (Cassels 1963). The two had a hot cold relationship. Despite the signing the Pact of Steel, which called for cooperation between the two countries in matters economical, militaristic and on foreign policy issues; still there are times when one of the countries would act without due consultation with the other. Ascension to Power There is great similarity in the manner that the two leaders campaigned for political leadership and got elected to the office. There countries by the time were facing unemployment problems, hopelessness and disillusionment. The citizens were therefore anticipating for someone who would literary save them from the situation. The coming of both Mussolini and Hitler was perceived as a great relieve to the economic situation of the time. There campaign which was fierce propaganda helped to catapult the two dictators into office. This propaganda continued to play a key role in the governments and administration of the day; the citizens were totally unaware of the true information that the government was acting upon. In times of war or when the government made important decisions that directly or indirectly affected the lives of the citizens; there were totally kept in the dark (Weber 1982). The two dictators all had a similar script to help them rule over the people (Flood 1989). They were at a point of establishing a new leadership whereby the individual was the one and only decision maker. This totalitarian government did not tolerate any form of opposition either from an individual or groups. It was therefore common for those who expressed ideas or views that were opposed to the leader to either face prosecution without trial or they were simply liquidated. The two leaders had an unquenchable thirst for power. This trait seemed to have cemented their relationship as they tended to see oneself in the character of the other. Hitler had been able to learn from Mussolini the way to govern a nation with the full authority centered on one individual. In mastering the way Mussolini carried out the affairs of the nation and particularly the conduct of the military; Hitler was eventually able to come up with his own style of leadership (Flood 1989). He was however very critical to avoid the mistakes that his friend had made. So in imitating his manner and way of leadership, he was also aware of the pitfalls that come with overindulgence more so exhibitionism. Foreign Policy It is because of the thirst for power and having the same style of leadership that the two dictators had to settle for an agreement such that they will support one another in case of war. This agreement otherwise referred to as the Pact of Steel was more in favor of Hitler’s Germany that is was for Italy (Corrado 1993). There was an unquenchable thirst for power on the part of Mussolini – for he had seen a powerful ally in Germany – that made him sign the deal. Later on it came to Italy’s realization that Germany was too aggressive in a bid to try and expand its influence thus fought a number of war expecting the cooperation of Italy. At least in two instances Italy declined to get involved in the wars despite the agreement. In both the 1939 and 1940 war, the former being the German’s invasion of Poland, there had been no cooperation between the countries. In the latter case the hesitation came since Mussolini had seen the possibility of Germany benefiting entirely from the invasion. The foreign policies of both Mussolini and Hitler were primarily addressing the expansion of their empire. The two would not squander any opportunity to try and spread there influence. For instance the involvement of Italy in the Spanish war was basically as a result of hunger for power by Mussolini. In this civil war that proved to be quite unpopular in Italy; was a way to get another member to the club of dictators. Already Hitler and Mussolini had perceived themselves as the most powerful nations in Europe. The two come up with an axis to which the other European countries revolved. According to Mussolini Italy would not miss the opportunity to spread its power and influence to other nations. In this stance Italy was backed by Germany and together they rallied their support for Franco. The two were in favor of another establishment of a Fascist dictatorship in Europe. In this war there combined force succeeded in having Franco joining the club of dictators. The effect of this war was a further alienation of Italy from the rest of Europe. It implied that the only option and way that was open to Italy was to augment its friendship with Germany. The Military The military might of Germany was not only one of the best but also the biggest. It was said to be five times more that the limit set by international standards. The significance of the great numbers of the officers was apparent. The nation went and fought many wars and was able to be successful in most of them. The military had been well equipped with sophisticated weapons and personnel that made it difficult to be defeated by any other nation. The two leaders were so much fascinated by the army such that even they themselves would always be seen in the army uniforms. In these military activities the leaders also were able to influence one another in one way or another. For instance the Nazi salute came from a direct imitation from the Mussolini army. Similarly there are a number of ideas that Mussolini borrowed from Hitler after he had visited his country and allowed to see the military. On seeing the military might of the Germans he made up his mind to maintain friendship with Hitler. Mussolini knew little about the military hence it was always divided and fragmented. There seemed to be no way to make the factions stick together and be loyal to their commander-in – chief. For a period of a decade or so Mussolini tried to consolidate and manage the military effectively. He could achieve but little success in this regard as his military exhibited weakness due to the internal divisions. This can be contrasted to his friend whose military was so compact and their loyalty was not compromised. The military was more of a cult than a professional body meant to safeguard the security of the nation. The German soldiers were simply dehumanized such that they were like automatons to follow orders that were given by their superiors. Together in Fascism Fascism seemed to have glued the two dictators together. They both found great relieve and prestige in holding absolute power. Fascism is regarded as unmasked capitalism since it has as its core value the idea of big business (Weber 1982). The two dictators were beneficiaries of the big business helping them ascend to leadership positions. It was therefore there prime role to ensure that the idea does not die with their coming into power. Fascism therefore continued to appeal to the emotions of the masses as it took on symbolism such as the hand salute, flags and creeds. Both Hitler and Mussolini exhibited these qualities and also the tendency towards racism, nationalism and sadism. Fascism detested so much the status quo and this has been the defining trait of both the dictators. Mussolini ensured that all political parties were dissolved. This gave him absolute power to rule over the state of Italy. He got to control each and everything in the country; the most powerful ministries were placed in his hands. These include defense, home and foreign affairs and corporations. Similarly he employed a lot of propaganda machinery such that the citizens are kept out of the picture. Everyone was made to believe that Fascism was the one and only system that could work in the 20th century (Griffin 2000). The other forms of government such as democracy and liberalism were to be shunned since they were outdated and could not be adopted. This manner of leadership was much akin to that of Adolph Hitler, just like his friend, he accomplished most of his goals through propaganda. A student of Mussolini, Hitler perfected the art of propaganda (Sternhell 1994). He was able to persuade the entire nation to support his goals and ideals in order to achieve a common purpose. Hitler had an entire ministry allotted to propaganda. Initially Mussolini held the policy of privatization of industries to the satisfaction of the financers. This was however a short term measure as the policy was reversed such that the government took on the control of the industries (Seldes 1935). As Mussolini struggled to ensure economic and financial independence of Italy – it was vital the country to have enough resources. This was not the case with Italy which struggled with limited resource allocation. To some extend Hitler had the resources to sustain his economy. He was able to solve the unemployment problem in the country and meet the demands of the huge army. Though the nation had been sidelined by other nations due to its aggressive behavior, still the economy did not flounder. This success story did not last for long as there were many obstacles on the way of achieving the goals that the leaders had set in mind. The Fascism ideology failed in its endeavor to bring some substantial changes in the human person and the society at large. First the two major personalities that stood for the idea actually met the most miserable of deaths. No one really wants to remember the actions of the two dictators. Similarly the goals of Fascism namely to come up with a society and human beings that are heroically moral were never to be realized. At first both Mussolini and Hitler were revered and admired by the citizen as they seem to have brought the changes that were badly needed by them and the society as a whole (Trifkovic 1993). This did not last long more so for Mussolini whom everyone soon realized his true character. The alienation of the two individuals by the civilized nations of Europe show how they were affected by their policies. However one cannot simply dismiss Mussolini as a failure who brought nothing but misery to his country. On the contrary Mussolini has been noted to have established the most stable government ever. It is as a result of his government that the nation of Italy can boast of a stable foundation. Similarly the good infrastructure of the country traces its roots back to the leadership of Mussolini. This is not to approve of his character or Fascism as a form of leadership. Any leader can take advantage of any form of leadership. In the case of Mussolini and Hitler the two used the power that had been bestowed on them to ensure that no one opposes their leadership. They systematically eliminated the individuals or groups that were not in favor of their policies. Common Tendencies Since Mussolini and Hitler were regarded as friends they were prone to show similarities in their actions. In some of their actions however the two lacked straight forwardness and tended to be some aspect of distrust. Germany and Italy both left the League of Nations, the former in 1933 while the latter – incensed by the imposition of sanctions by the league after invading Ethiopia – left in 1939. This shows how closely the two leaders influenced the behavior of one other. The attempt to try and occupy Albania by Mussolini had been noted as being synonymous with Hitler’s invasion and later occupation of Czechoslovakia and Austria. This attempt, unlike that of Hitler, did not bear any fruit as the Italian forces were defeated and forced to withdraw from Albania. The foreign policy of the two dictators were therefore similar to a greater extend but the political and military might of Germany was far much superior compared to that of Italy. It is for this reason that analysts were concerned that Mussolini was in fact simply a puppet of his comrade. The foreign policies of Mussolini and Hitler were meant for the achievement of power and status. There were both in favor of the expansion of their empires. To achieve this purpose the dictators employed force and diplomacy. For instance in 1935 take over of Ethiopia, Mussolini had to use force. Similarly Hitler had to threaten with the use of force in order to occupy Austria. In this way the two dictators exhibit the same manner of approach in an attempt to gain power. In brief the two fascist dictators were cut in the same cloth (Trifkovic 1993). There character though seemed to show some variation it was nonetheless the same. Everything that the two dictators did could be brought down to the thirst for power. This was mostly accomplished through wars. The Wars The civil war in Spain that lasted for three years saw the exhibition of new weapons and brought to the fore rivalries between the nations. The war simply showed who is who in the world. There were democracies on one hand comprising of countries such as Belgium, Britain, France and Holland. One the other hand there were the totalitarian regimes which included Russia, Italy and Germany. The might of these nations was to be exhibited in Spain during the civil war. Countries such as France and Britain however did not want to get involved in the crisis and therefore kept off the battlefield. This war was therefore fueled by external forces with little participation of internal forces. In participating in the war, Mussolini was acting against the will of a significant number of Italians. The war was not popular with the majority people since it was simply meant to quench the thirst for power of an individual. Mussolini wanted to have another dictator to join in Europe to join him and Hitler. In this endeavor together with Hitler they recorded huge success after General Franco won the war. Italy had been reluctant to join the First World War due to domestic policies that favored a liberal stance. By then Mussolini was allied to the socialist party thus held to the principles of the party. He later on changed his mind and joined Hitler’s faction on the battlefield. This angered the socialist party leadership thus resulting to his expulsion from the party. Similarly in the Second World War Mussolini was reluctant to join his friend as he was unsure on which side to fight. He was later to make up his mind after he had witnessed the progress in the war. Despite the fact that Hitler was more successful in war compared to Mussolini, the wars kept their relationship close and tight. The invasion of Italy to both Greek and Ethiopia – the former due to the supposed killing of her soldiers while the latter just a revenge mission on an occurrence that happened many years back – led the country to face sanctions from the League of Nations. This was very disagreeable to Mussolini thus making him withdraw from the league. He, just as his friend Hitler had come to the realization that the league could not stand on the way to acquisition of colonies. In order to understand the two leaders one has to place their actions in their respective context. It was the time when the nation’s exalted wars and there was much honor and prestige in conquering another nation. The philosophy of the time was mostly in the favor of the Germanys. This is notably Fred rich Nietzsche whom it is said to have influenced both Hitler and Mussolini with his idea of the superman. This idea was later to become the obsession of Mussolini. He wanted everyone to believe that he had extraordinary qualities. In his approach to many issues and problems that faced his country, Mussolini lacked a realistic approach. Betrayal In one way or another friendship between Mussolini and Hitler has not been smooth running. There have been ups and downs; sometimes they did cooperate while other times the two were totally on different paths. In most cases Mussolini was the victim of the betrayal as he was the lesser of the two in the relationship. In the Pact of Steel for instance the two were to stand by one another in case one declared war on another country. This was not to be as Italy was reluctant to join Germany in its attempt to invade Poland; an incidence that caused the Second World War (Trifkovic 1993). In failing to join his friend in war despite the deal that had been made earlier on, Mussolini was declaring his independence. There is also the possibility that the army was not prepared to fight at the time. The failure to abide by the Pact of Steel can also be as a result of the feeling that Hitler was opportunistic. His military was in fact more aggressive compared to that of Italy. This meant that Italy will serve as the puppet to be manipulated by Germany. Considering the character of both Mussolini and Hitler, none would be willing to accept such a demeaning position. Even with the apparent friendship between Mussolini and Hitler, the latter was said to have recommended Hitler for excommunication to the pope. This action, considering the closeness of the two, had two implications; one is that in essence it sounds factual and quite obvious. On the other hand it is shocking for the suggestion to come from ones friend. The two had cooperated in many things and continued to do so. In fact when everyone else seemed to turn his back against Mussolini, it is Hitler that came to his rescue. The incidence is therefore quite shocking as it is interesting. For no one really knew the true character of these individuals. Not even there closest friends. Nevertheless the two did cooperate in many spheres of life. If it were not for the support of the Germany military, then Mussolini will not have achieved some of the victories that were pegged to his name and regime (Cassels 1963). The most significant aspect of the relationship is the rescue that was carried out by the German soldiers. Mussolini having been arrested and imprisoned in the mountain top; it took the world by storm to see that the German soldiers were able to rescue him (Trifkovic 1993). This was a true display of friendship between Hitler and Mussolini. In fact after the rescue Mussolini was reported to have anticipated his friend’s assistance. Likewise Hitler could not afford to do nothing considering that the friend has been kept in prison. Conclusion It is apparent that for anyone to effectively discuss the actions of Mussolini he will not avoid to mention Hitler. The two cooperated in a number of ways and in carrying out the affairs that badly affected the world. Among the things that fascinated the two principles were war and the military. The obsession with both the military and war made them to always show up in the public in full military uniforms. Nothing however is more notable of the two than their thirst for power. It is primarily for the want of excessive power that the two Fascist dictators saw a similarity in one another bringing them closer together. Even though Mussolini had pioneered in totalitarian leadership, it is Hitler that perfected the practice. He learned from the failures of Mussolini thus able to avoid the pitfalls. In brief, the relationship between Mussolini and Hitler had been a friendly one till when death set them apart.

Jawaharlal Nehru

Jawaharlal Nehru (Hindi/Kashmiri: , pronounced [d a r? la? l ? ne ru? ]; 14 November 1889–27 May 1964[4]) was an Indian statesman who was the first (and to date the longest-serving) prime minister of India, from 1947 until 1964. One of the leading figures in the Indian independence movement, Nehru was elected by the Congress Party to assume office as independent India's first Prime Minister, and re-elected when the Congress Party won India's first general election in 1952.As one of the founders of the Non-aligned Movement, he was also an important figure in the international politics of the post-war era. He is frequently referred to as Pandit Nehru (â€Å"pandit† being a Sanskrit and Hindi honorific meaning â€Å"scholar† or â€Å"teacher†) and, specifically in India, as Panditji (with â€Å"-ji† being a honorific suffix). The son of a wealthy Indian barrister and politician, Motilal Nehru, Nehru became a leader of the left wing of the Congress Pa rty when still fairly young.Rising to become Congress President, under the mentorship of Mahatma Gandhi, Nehru was a charismatic and radical leader, advocating complete independence from the British Empire. In the long struggle for Indian independence, in which he was a key player, Nehru was eventually recognized as Gandhi's political heir. Throughout his life, Nehru was also an advocate for Fabian socialism and the public sector as the means by which long-standing challenges of economic development could be addressed by poorer nations. Jawaharlal Nehru was born to Motilal Nehru (1861–1931) and Swaroop Rani (1863–1954) in a Kashmiri Pandit family.The Nehru family – Motilal Nehru is seated in the center, and standing (L to R) are Jawaharlal Nehru, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Krishna Hutheesing, Indira Gandhi, and Ranjit Pandit; Seated: Swaroop Rani, Motilal Nehru and Kamala Nehru (circa 1927). Nehru was educated in India and Britain. In England, he attended the indepen dent boy's school, Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge. Jawaharlal Nehru at Harrow, where he was also known as Joe Nehru. During his time in Britain, Nehru was also known as Joe Nehru. [5][6][7][8][9][10] On 8 February, 1916, Nehru married seventeen year old Kamala Kaul. In the irst year of the marriage, Kamala gave birth to their only child, Indira Priyadarshini. [edit] Life and career Nehru raised the flag of independent India in New Delhi on 15 August 1947, the day India gained Independence.Nehru's appreciation of the virtues of parliamentary democracy, secularism and liberalism, coupled with his concerns for the poor and underprivileged, are recognised to have guided him in formulating socialist policies that influence India to this day. They also reflect the socialist origins of his worldview. His daughter, Indira Gandhi, and grandson, Rajiv Gandhi, also served as Prime Ministers of India. edit] Successor to Gandhi On 15 January 1941 Gandhi said, â€Å"Some say Pandit Nehru and I were estranged. It will require much more than difference of opinion to estrange us. We had differences from the time we became co-workers and yet I have said for some years and say so now that not Rajaji but Jawaharlal will be my successor. â€Å"[11] [edit] India's first Prime Minister Teen Murti Bhavan, Nehru's residence as Prime Minister, now a museum in his memory. Nehru and his colleagues had been released as the British Cabinet Mission arrived to propose plans for transfer of power.Once elected, Nehru headed an interim government, which was impaired by outbreaks of communal violence and political disorder, and the opposition of the Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who were demanding a separate Muslim state of Pakistan. After failed bids to form coalitions, Nehru reluctantly supported the partition of India, according to a plan released by the British on 3 June 1947. He took office as the Prime Minister of India on 15 August, and delivered his inaugural address titled â€Å"A Tryst With Destiny† â€Å"Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes hen we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance. It is fitting that at this solemn moment we take the pledge of dedication to the service of India and her people and to the still larger cause of humanity. â€Å"[12] However, this period was marked with intense communal violence.This violence swept across the Punjab region, Delhi, Bengal and other parts of India. Nehru conducted joint tours[citation needed] with Pakistani leaders to encourage peace and calm angry and disillusioned refugees. Nehru would work with Maulana Azad and other Muslim leaders to safeguard and encourage Muslims to remain in India. The violence of the time deeply affected Nehru, who called for a ceasefire[citation needed] and UN intervention to stop the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. Fearing communal reprisals, Nehru also hesitated in supporting the annexation of Hyderabad State.In the years following independence, Nehru frequently turned to his daughter Indira to look after him and manage his personal affairs. Under his leadership, the Congress won an overwhelming majority in the elections of 1952. Indira moved into Nehru's official residence to attend to him and became his constant companion in his travels across India and the world. Indira would virtually become Nehru's chief of staff. Nehru's study in Teen Murti Bhavan. [edit] Economic policies Nehru presided over the introduction of a modified, Indian version of state planning and control over the economy.Creating the Planning commission of India, Nehru drew up the first Five-Year Plan in 1951, which charted the gov ernment's investments in industries and agriculture. Increasing business and income taxes, Nehru envisaged a mixed economy in which the government would manage strategic industries such as mining, electricity and heavy industries, serving public interest and a check to private enterprise. Nehru pursued land redistribution and launched programmes to build irrigation canals, dams and spread the use of fertilizers to increase agricultural roduction. He also pioneered a series of community development programs aimed at spreading diverse cottage industries and increasing efficiency into rural India. While encouraging the construction of large dams (which Nehru called the â€Å"new temples of India†), irrigation works and the generation of hydroelectricity, Nehru also launched India's programme to harness nuclear energy. For most of Nehru's term as prime minister, India would continue to face serious food shortages despite progress and increases in agricultural production.Nehru's i ndustrial policies, summarised in the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956, encouraged the growth of diverse manufacturing and heavy industries,[13] yet state planning, controls and regulations began to impair productivity, quality and profitability. Although the Indian economy enjoyed a steady rate of growth, called Hindu rate of growth at 2. 5% per annum, chronic unemployment amidst widespread poverty continued to plague the population. [edit] Education and social reform Jawaharlal Nehru was a passionate advocate of education for India's children and youth, believing it essential for India's future progress.His government oversaw the establishment of many institutions of higher learning, including the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, the Indian Institutes of Technology and the Indian Institutes of Management. Nehru also outlined a commitment in his five-year plans to guarantee free and compulsory primary education to all of India's children. For this purpose, Nehru oversaw the creation of mass village enrollment programmes and the construction of thousands of schools. Nehru also launched initiatives such as the provision of free milk and meals to children in order to fight malnutrition.Adult education centres, vocational and technical schools were also organised for adults, especially in the rural areas. Under Nehru, the Indian Parliament enacted many changes to Hindu law to criminalize caste discrimination and increase the legal rights and social freedoms of women[14][15][16] [17] A system of reservations in government services and educational institutions was created to eradicate the social inequalities and disadvantages faced by peoples of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Nehru also championed secularism and religious harmony, increasing the representation of minorities in government. edit] National security and foreign policy See also: Role of India in Non-Aligned Movement Nehru led newly independent India from 1947 to 1964, during its first years of freedom from British rule. Both the United States and the Soviet Union competed to make India an ally throughout the Cold War. On the international scene, Nehru was a champion of pacifism and a strong supporter of the United Nations. He pioneered the policy of non-alignment and co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement of nations professing neutrality between the rival blocs of nations led by the U. S. and the U. S.S. R. Recognising the People's Republic of China soon after its founding (while most of the Western bloc continued relations with the Republic of China), Nehru argued for its inclusion in the United Nations and refused to brand the Chinese as the aggressors in their conflict with Korea. [18] He sought to establish warm and friendly relations with China in 1950, and hoped to act as an intermediary to bridge the gulf and tensions between the communist states and the Western bloc. Meanwhile, Nehru had promised in 1948 to hold a plebiscite in Kashmir under the auspic es of the U.N. but, as Pakistan failed to pull back troops in accordance with the UN resolution and as Nehru grew increasingly wary of the U. N. , he declined to hold a plebiscite in 1953. He ordered the arrest of the Kashmiri politician Sheikh Abdullah, whom he had previously supported but now suspected of harbouring separatist ambitions; Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad replaced him. His policy of pacifism and appeasement with respect to China also came unraveled when border disputes led to the Sino-Indian war in 1962.Jawaharlal Nehru (right) talks to Pakistan prime minister Muhammad Ali Bogra (left) during his 1953 visit to Karachi. Nehru was hailed by many for working to defuse global tensions and the threat of nuclear weapons. [19] He commissioned the first study of the human effects of nuclear explosions, and campaigned ceaselessly for the abolition of what he called â€Å"these frightful engines of destruction. † He also had pragmatic reasons for promoting de-nuclearisation, fea ring that a nuclear arms race would lead to over-militarisation that would be unaffordable for developing countries such as his own. 20] In 1956 he had criticised the joint invasion of the Suez Canal by the British, French and Israelis. Suspicion and distrust cooled relations between India and the U. S. , which suspected Nehru of tacitly supporting the Soviet Union. Accepting the arbitration of the UK and World Bank, Nehru signed the Indus Water Treaty in 1960 with Pakistani ruler Ayub Khan to resolve long-standing disputes about sharing the resources of the major rivers of the Punjab region. [edit] Final years Nehru with Ashoke Kumar Sen, S.Radhakrishnan and Bidhan Chandra RoyNehru had led the Congress to a major victory in the 1957 elections, but his government was facing rising problems and criticism. Disillusioned by intra-party corruption and bickering, Nehru contemplated resigning but continued to serve. The election of his daughter Indira as Congress President in 1959 aroused criticism for alleged nepotism[citation needed], although actually Nehru had disapproved of her election, partly because he considered it smacked of â€Å"dynastism†; he said, indeed it was â€Å"wholly undemocratic and an undesirable thing†, and refused her a position in his cabinet. 21] Indira herself was at loggerheads with her father over policy; most notably, she used his oft-stated personal deference to the Congress Working Committee to push through the dismissal of the Communist Party of India government in the state of Kerala, over his own objections. [21] Nehru began to be frequently embarrassed by her ruthlessness and disregard for parliamentary tradition, and was â€Å"hurt† by what he saw as an assertiveness with no purpose other than to stake out an identity independent of her father. [4]Although the Pancha Sila (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence) was the basis of the 1954 Sino-Indian border treaty, in later years, Nehru's foreign policy suff ered through increasing Chinese assertiveness over border disputes and Nehru's decision to grant political asylum to the 14th Dalai Lama. After years of failed negotiations, Nehru authorized the Indian Army to invade Goa in 1961, and then he annexed it to India. It increased his popularity, but he was criticized the use of military force. In the 1962 elections, Nehru led the Congress to victory yet with a diminished majority.Opposition parties ranging from the right-wing Bharatiya Jana Sangh and Swatantra Party, socialists and the Communist Party of India performed well. Public viewing of Nehru's body, which lies in state, in 1964; the gun carriage used for his state funeral was later used for the state funeral of Mother TeresaSince 1959, and this accelerated in 1961, Nehru adopted the â€Å"Forward Policy† of setting up military outposts in disputed areas of the Sino-Indian border, including in 43 outposts in territory not previously controlled by India. 22] China attacked s ome of these outposts, and thus the Sino-Indian War began, which India technically lost, but China gained no territory as it withdrew to pre-war lines. The war exposed the weaknesses of India's military, and Nehru was widely criticised for his government's insufficient attention to defence. In response, Nehru sacked the defence minister Krishna Menon and sought U. S. military aid, but Nehru's health began declining steadily, and he spent months recuperating in Kashmir through 1963.Some historians attribute this dramatic decline to his surprise and chagrin over the Sino-Indian War, which he perceived as a betrayal of trust. [23] Upon his return from Kashmir in May 1964, Nehru suffered a stroke and later a heart attack. He died in the early hours of 27 May 1964. Nehru was cremated in accordance with Hindu rites at the Shantivana on the banks of the Yamuna River, witnessed by hundreds of thousands of mourners who had flocked into the streets of Delhi and the cremation grounds. [edit] L egacy Nehru's statue in Aldwych, London.As India's first Prime minister and external affairs minister, Jawaharlal Nehru played a major role in shaping modern India's government and political culture along with sound foreign policy. He is praised for creating a system providing universal primary education, reaching children in the farthest corners of rural India. Nehru's education policy is also credited for the development of world-class educational institutions such as the All India Institute of Medical Sciences,[24] Indian Institutes of Technology,[25] and the Indian Institutes of Management. Nehru was a great man†¦ Nehru gave to Indians an image of themselves that I don't think others might have succeeded in doing. † – Sir Isaiah Berlin[26] In addition, Nehru's stance as an unfailing nationalist led him to also implement policies which stressed commonality among Indians while still appreciating regional diversities. This proved particularly important as post-Ind ependence differences surfaced since British withdrawal from the subcontinent prompted regional leaders to no longer relate to one another as allies against a common adversary.While differences of culture and, especially, language threatened the unity of the new nation, Nehru established programs such as the National Book Trust and the National Literary Academy which promoted the translation of regional literatures between languages and also organized the transfer of materials between regions. In pursuit of a single, unified India, Nehru warned, â€Å"Integrate or perish. â€Å"[27] [edit] Commemoration Nehru hands out sweets to children in Nongpoh Jawaharlal Nehru on a 1989 USSR commemorative stamp.In his lifetime, Jawaharlal Nehru enjoyed an iconic status in India and was widely admired across the world for his idealism and statesmanship. His birthday, 14 November, is celebrated in India as Baal Divas (Children's Day) in recognition of his lifelong passion and work for the welfa re, education and development of children and young people. Children across India remember him as Chacha Nehru (Uncle Nehru). Nehru remains a popular symbol of the Congress Party which frequently celebrates his memory.Congress leaders and activists often emulate his style of clothing, especially the Gandhi cap, and his mannerisms. Nehru's ideals and policies continue to shape the Congress Party's manifesto and core political philosophy. An emotional attachment to his legacy was instrumental in the rise of his daughter Indira to leadership of the Congress Party and the national government. Many documentaries about Nehru's life have been produced. He has also been portrayed in fictionalised films.The canonical performance is probably that of Roshan Seth, who played him three times: in Richard Attenborough's 1982 film Gandhi, Shyam Benegal's 1988 television series Bharat Ek Khoj, based on Nehru's The Discovery of India, and in a 2007 TV film entitled The Last Days of the Raj. [28] In K etan Mehta's film Sardar, Nehru was portrayed by Benjamin Gilani. Nehru's personal preference for the sherwani ensured that it continues to be considered formal wear in North India today; aside from lending his name to a kind of cap, the Nehru jacket is named in his honour due to his preference for that style.Numerous public institutions and memorials across India are dedicated to Nehru's memory. The Jawaharlal Nehru University in Delhi is among the most prestigious universities in India. The Jawaharlal Nehru Port near the city of Mumbai is a modern port and dock designed to handle a huge cargo and traffic load. Nehru's residence in Delhi is preserved as the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library. The Nehru family homes at Anand Bhavan and Swaraj Bhavan are also preserved to commemorate Nehru and his family's legacy. edit] Writings Nehru was a prolific writer in English and wrote a number of books, such as The Discovery of India, Glimpses of World History, and his autobiography, Towards Freedom. [edit] Awards In 1955 Nehru was awarded with Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour. [29] [edit] Criticism D. D. Kosambi, a well-known Marxist historian, criticized Nehru in his article for the bourgeoisie class exploitation of Nehru's socialist ideology. [30]Jaswant Singh, a former leader of Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), viewed Nehru, not Mohammad Ali Jinnah, as causing the partition of India, mostly referring to his highly centralised policies for an independent India in 1947, which Jinnah opposed in favour of a more decentralised India. The split between the two was among the causes of partition. It is believed that personal animosity between the two leaders led to the partition of India. [31][32] Singh was later expelled from the BJP for having favourable views on Jinnah. [ Jawaharlal Nehru Jawaharlal Nehru (Hindi/Kashmiri: , pronounced [d a r? la? l ? ne ru? ]; 14 November 1889–27 May 1964[4]) was an Indian statesman who was the first (and to date the longest-serving) prime minister of India, from 1947 until 1964. One of the leading figures in the Indian independence movement, Nehru was elected by the Congress Party to assume office as independent India's first Prime Minister, and re-elected when the Congress Party won India's first general election in 1952.As one of the founders of the Non-aligned Movement, he was also an important figure in the international politics of the post-war era. He is frequently referred to as Pandit Nehru (â€Å"pandit† being a Sanskrit and Hindi honorific meaning â€Å"scholar† or â€Å"teacher†) and, specifically in India, as Panditji (with â€Å"-ji† being a honorific suffix). The son of a wealthy Indian barrister and politician, Motilal Nehru, Nehru became a leader of the left wing of the Congress Pa rty when still fairly young.Rising to become Congress President, under the mentorship of Mahatma Gandhi, Nehru was a charismatic and radical leader, advocating complete independence from the British Empire. In the long struggle for Indian independence, in which he was a key player, Nehru was eventually recognized as Gandhi's political heir. Throughout his life, Nehru was also an advocate for Fabian socialism and the public sector as the means by which long-standing challenges of economic development could be addressed by poorer nations. Jawaharlal Nehru was born to Motilal Nehru (1861–1931) and Swaroop Rani (1863–1954) in a Kashmiri Pandit family.The Nehru family – Motilal Nehru is seated in the center, and standing (L to R) are Jawaharlal Nehru, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Krishna Hutheesing, Indira Gandhi, and Ranjit Pandit; Seated: Swaroop Rani, Motilal Nehru and Kamala Nehru (circa 1927). Nehru was educated in India and Britain. In England, he attended the indepen dent boy's school, Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge. Jawaharlal Nehru at Harrow, where he was also known as Joe Nehru. During his time in Britain, Nehru was also known as Joe Nehru. [5][6][7][8][9][10] On 8 February, 1916, Nehru married seventeen year old Kamala Kaul. In the irst year of the marriage, Kamala gave birth to their only child, Indira Priyadarshini. [edit] Life and career Nehru raised the flag of independent India in New Delhi on 15 August 1947, the day India gained Independence.Nehru's appreciation of the virtues of parliamentary democracy, secularism and liberalism, coupled with his concerns for the poor and underprivileged, are recognised to have guided him in formulating socialist policies that influence India to this day. They also reflect the socialist origins of his worldview. His daughter, Indira Gandhi, and grandson, Rajiv Gandhi, also served as Prime Ministers of India. edit] Successor to Gandhi On 15 January 1941 Gandhi said, â€Å"Some say Pandit Nehru and I were estranged. It will require much more than difference of opinion to estrange us. We had differences from the time we became co-workers and yet I have said for some years and say so now that not Rajaji but Jawaharlal will be my successor. â€Å"[11] [edit] India's first Prime Minister Teen Murti Bhavan, Nehru's residence as Prime Minister, now a museum in his memory. Nehru and his colleagues had been released as the British Cabinet Mission arrived to propose plans for transfer of power.Once elected, Nehru headed an interim government, which was impaired by outbreaks of communal violence and political disorder, and the opposition of the Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who were demanding a separate Muslim state of Pakistan. After failed bids to form coalitions, Nehru reluctantly supported the partition of India, according to a plan released by the British on 3 June 1947. He took office as the Prime Minister of India on 15 August, and delivered his inaugural address titled â€Å"A Tryst With Destiny† â€Å"Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes hen we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance. It is fitting that at this solemn moment we take the pledge of dedication to the service of India and her people and to the still larger cause of humanity. â€Å"[12] However, this period was marked with intense communal violence.This violence swept across the Punjab region, Delhi, Bengal and other parts of India. Nehru conducted joint tours[citation needed] with Pakistani leaders to encourage peace and calm angry and disillusioned refugees. Nehru would work with Maulana Azad and other Muslim leaders to safeguard and encourage Muslims to remain in India. The violence of the time deeply affected Nehru, who called for a ceasefire[citation needed] and UN intervention to stop the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. Fearing communal reprisals, Nehru also hesitated in supporting the annexation of Hyderabad State.In the years following independence, Nehru frequently turned to his daughter Indira to look after him and manage his personal affairs. Under his leadership, the Congress won an overwhelming majority in the elections of 1952. Indira moved into Nehru's official residence to attend to him and became his constant companion in his travels across India and the world. Indira would virtually become Nehru's chief of staff. Nehru's study in Teen Murti Bhavan. [edit] Economic policies Nehru presided over the introduction of a modified, Indian version of state planning and control over the economy.Creating the Planning commission of India, Nehru drew up the first Five-Year Plan in 1951, which charted the gov ernment's investments in industries and agriculture. Increasing business and income taxes, Nehru envisaged a mixed economy in which the government would manage strategic industries such as mining, electricity and heavy industries, serving public interest and a check to private enterprise. Nehru pursued land redistribution and launched programmes to build irrigation canals, dams and spread the use of fertilizers to increase agricultural roduction. He also pioneered a series of community development programs aimed at spreading diverse cottage industries and increasing efficiency into rural India. While encouraging the construction of large dams (which Nehru called the â€Å"new temples of India†), irrigation works and the generation of hydroelectricity, Nehru also launched India's programme to harness nuclear energy. For most of Nehru's term as prime minister, India would continue to face serious food shortages despite progress and increases in agricultural production.Nehru's i ndustrial policies, summarised in the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956, encouraged the growth of diverse manufacturing and heavy industries,[13] yet state planning, controls and regulations began to impair productivity, quality and profitability. Although the Indian economy enjoyed a steady rate of growth, called Hindu rate of growth at 2. 5% per annum, chronic unemployment amidst widespread poverty continued to plague the population. [edit] Education and social reform Jawaharlal Nehru was a passionate advocate of education for India's children and youth, believing it essential for India's future progress.His government oversaw the establishment of many institutions of higher learning, including the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, the Indian Institutes of Technology and the Indian Institutes of Management. Nehru also outlined a commitment in his five-year plans to guarantee free and compulsory primary education to all of India's children. For this purpose, Nehru oversaw the creation of mass village enrollment programmes and the construction of thousands of schools. Nehru also launched initiatives such as the provision of free milk and meals to children in order to fight malnutrition.Adult education centres, vocational and technical schools were also organised for adults, especially in the rural areas. Under Nehru, the Indian Parliament enacted many changes to Hindu law to criminalize caste discrimination and increase the legal rights and social freedoms of women[14][15][16] [17] A system of reservations in government services and educational institutions was created to eradicate the social inequalities and disadvantages faced by peoples of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Nehru also championed secularism and religious harmony, increasing the representation of minorities in government. edit] National security and foreign policy See also: Role of India in Non-Aligned Movement Nehru led newly independent India from 1947 to 1964, during its first years of freedom from British rule. Both the United States and the Soviet Union competed to make India an ally throughout the Cold War. On the international scene, Nehru was a champion of pacifism and a strong supporter of the United Nations. He pioneered the policy of non-alignment and co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement of nations professing neutrality between the rival blocs of nations led by the U. S. and the U. S.S. R. Recognising the People's Republic of China soon after its founding (while most of the Western bloc continued relations with the Republic of China), Nehru argued for its inclusion in the United Nations and refused to brand the Chinese as the aggressors in their conflict with Korea. [18] He sought to establish warm and friendly relations with China in 1950, and hoped to act as an intermediary to bridge the gulf and tensions between the communist states and the Western bloc. Meanwhile, Nehru had promised in 1948 to hold a plebiscite in Kashmir under the auspic es of the U.N. but, as Pakistan failed to pull back troops in accordance with the UN resolution and as Nehru grew increasingly wary of the U. N. , he declined to hold a plebiscite in 1953. He ordered the arrest of the Kashmiri politician Sheikh Abdullah, whom he had previously supported but now suspected of harbouring separatist ambitions; Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad replaced him. His policy of pacifism and appeasement with respect to China also came unraveled when border disputes led to the Sino-Indian war in 1962.Jawaharlal Nehru (right) talks to Pakistan prime minister Muhammad Ali Bogra (left) during his 1953 visit to Karachi. Nehru was hailed by many for working to defuse global tensions and the threat of nuclear weapons. [19] He commissioned the first study of the human effects of nuclear explosions, and campaigned ceaselessly for the abolition of what he called â€Å"these frightful engines of destruction. † He also had pragmatic reasons for promoting de-nuclearisation, fea ring that a nuclear arms race would lead to over-militarisation that would be unaffordable for developing countries such as his own. 20] In 1956 he had criticised the joint invasion of the Suez Canal by the British, French and Israelis. Suspicion and distrust cooled relations between India and the U. S. , which suspected Nehru of tacitly supporting the Soviet Union. Accepting the arbitration of the UK and World Bank, Nehru signed the Indus Water Treaty in 1960 with Pakistani ruler Ayub Khan to resolve long-standing disputes about sharing the resources of the major rivers of the Punjab region. [edit] Final years Nehru with Ashoke Kumar Sen, S.Radhakrishnan and Bidhan Chandra RoyNehru had led the Congress to a major victory in the 1957 elections, but his government was facing rising problems and criticism. Disillusioned by intra-party corruption and bickering, Nehru contemplated resigning but continued to serve. The election of his daughter Indira as Congress President in 1959 aroused criticism for alleged nepotism[citation needed], although actually Nehru had disapproved of her election, partly because he considered it smacked of â€Å"dynastism†; he said, indeed it was â€Å"wholly undemocratic and an undesirable thing†, and refused her a position in his cabinet. 21] Indira herself was at loggerheads with her father over policy; most notably, she used his oft-stated personal deference to the Congress Working Committee to push through the dismissal of the Communist Party of India government in the state of Kerala, over his own objections. [21] Nehru began to be frequently embarrassed by her ruthlessness and disregard for parliamentary tradition, and was â€Å"hurt† by what he saw as an assertiveness with no purpose other than to stake out an identity independent of her father. [4]Although the Pancha Sila (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence) was the basis of the 1954 Sino-Indian border treaty, in later years, Nehru's foreign policy suff ered through increasing Chinese assertiveness over border disputes and Nehru's decision to grant political asylum to the 14th Dalai Lama. After years of failed negotiations, Nehru authorized the Indian Army to invade Goa in 1961, and then he annexed it to India. It increased his popularity, but he was criticized the use of military force. In the 1962 elections, Nehru led the Congress to victory yet with a diminished majority.Opposition parties ranging from the right-wing Bharatiya Jana Sangh and Swatantra Party, socialists and the Communist Party of India performed well. Public viewing of Nehru's body, which lies in state, in 1964; the gun carriage used for his state funeral was later used for the state funeral of Mother TeresaSince 1959, and this accelerated in 1961, Nehru adopted the â€Å"Forward Policy† of setting up military outposts in disputed areas of the Sino-Indian border, including in 43 outposts in territory not previously controlled by India. 22] China attacked s ome of these outposts, and thus the Sino-Indian War began, which India technically lost, but China gained no territory as it withdrew to pre-war lines. The war exposed the weaknesses of India's military, and Nehru was widely criticised for his government's insufficient attention to defence. In response, Nehru sacked the defence minister Krishna Menon and sought U. S. military aid, but Nehru's health began declining steadily, and he spent months recuperating in Kashmir through 1963.Some historians attribute this dramatic decline to his surprise and chagrin over the Sino-Indian War, which he perceived as a betrayal of trust. [23] Upon his return from Kashmir in May 1964, Nehru suffered a stroke and later a heart attack. He died in the early hours of 27 May 1964. Nehru was cremated in accordance with Hindu rites at the Shantivana on the banks of the Yamuna River, witnessed by hundreds of thousands of mourners who had flocked into the streets of Delhi and the cremation grounds. [edit] L egacy Nehru's statue in Aldwych, London.As India's first Prime minister and external affairs minister, Jawaharlal Nehru played a major role in shaping modern India's government and political culture along with sound foreign policy. He is praised for creating a system providing universal primary education, reaching children in the farthest corners of rural India. Nehru's education policy is also credited for the development of world-class educational institutions such as the All India Institute of Medical Sciences,[24] Indian Institutes of Technology,[25] and the Indian Institutes of Management. Nehru was a great man†¦ Nehru gave to Indians an image of themselves that I don't think others might have succeeded in doing. † – Sir Isaiah Berlin[26] In addition, Nehru's stance as an unfailing nationalist led him to also implement policies which stressed commonality among Indians while still appreciating regional diversities. This proved particularly important as post-Ind ependence differences surfaced since British withdrawal from the subcontinent prompted regional leaders to no longer relate to one another as allies against a common adversary.While differences of culture and, especially, language threatened the unity of the new nation, Nehru established programs such as the National Book Trust and the National Literary Academy which promoted the translation of regional literatures between languages and also organized the transfer of materials between regions. In pursuit of a single, unified India, Nehru warned, â€Å"Integrate or perish. â€Å"[27] [edit] Commemoration Nehru hands out sweets to children in Nongpoh Jawaharlal Nehru on a 1989 USSR commemorative stamp.In his lifetime, Jawaharlal Nehru enjoyed an iconic status in India and was widely admired across the world for his idealism and statesmanship. His birthday, 14 November, is celebrated in India as Baal Divas (Children's Day) in recognition of his lifelong passion and work for the welfa re, education and development of children and young people. Children across India remember him as Chacha Nehru (Uncle Nehru). Nehru remains a popular symbol of the Congress Party which frequently celebrates his memory.Congress leaders and activists often emulate his style of clothing, especially the Gandhi cap, and his mannerisms. Nehru's ideals and policies continue to shape the Congress Party's manifesto and core political philosophy. An emotional attachment to his legacy was instrumental in the rise of his daughter Indira to leadership of the Congress Party and the national government. Many documentaries about Nehru's life have been produced. He has also been portrayed in fictionalised films.The canonical performance is probably that of Roshan Seth, who played him three times: in Richard Attenborough's 1982 film Gandhi, Shyam Benegal's 1988 television series Bharat Ek Khoj, based on Nehru's The Discovery of India, and in a 2007 TV film entitled The Last Days of the Raj. [28] In K etan Mehta's film Sardar, Nehru was portrayed by Benjamin Gilani. Nehru's personal preference for the sherwani ensured that it continues to be considered formal wear in North India today; aside from lending his name to a kind of cap, the Nehru jacket is named in his honour due to his preference for that style.Numerous public institutions and memorials across India are dedicated to Nehru's memory. The Jawaharlal Nehru University in Delhi is among the most prestigious universities in India. The Jawaharlal Nehru Port near the city of Mumbai is a modern port and dock designed to handle a huge cargo and traffic load. Nehru's residence in Delhi is preserved as the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library. The Nehru family homes at Anand Bhavan and Swaraj Bhavan are also preserved to commemorate Nehru and his family's legacy. edit] Writings Nehru was a prolific writer in English and wrote a number of books, such as The Discovery of India, Glimpses of World History, and his autobiography, Towards Freedom. [edit] Awards In 1955 Nehru was awarded with Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour. [29] [edit] Criticism D. D. Kosambi, a well-known Marxist historian, criticized Nehru in his article for the bourgeoisie class exploitation of Nehru's socialist ideology. [30]Jaswant Singh, a former leader of Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), viewed Nehru, not Mohammad Ali Jinnah, as causing the partition of India, mostly referring to his highly centralised policies for an independent India in 1947, which Jinnah opposed in favour of a more decentralised India. The split between the two was among the causes of partition. It is believed that personal animosity between the two leaders led to the partition of India. [31][32] Singh was later expelled from the BJP for having favourable views on Jinnah. [ Jawaharlal Nehru Jawaharlal Nehru (Hindi/Kashmiri: , pronounced [d a r? la? l ? ne ru? ]; 14 November 1889–27 May 1964[4]) was an Indian statesman who was the first (and to date the longest-serving) prime minister of India, from 1947 until 1964. One of the leading figures in the Indian independence movement, Nehru was elected by the Congress Party to assume office as independent India's first Prime Minister, and re-elected when the Congress Party won India's first general election in 1952.As one of the founders of the Non-aligned Movement, he was also an important figure in the international politics of the post-war era. He is frequently referred to as Pandit Nehru (â€Å"pandit† being a Sanskrit and Hindi honorific meaning â€Å"scholar† or â€Å"teacher†) and, specifically in India, as Panditji (with â€Å"-ji† being a honorific suffix). The son of a wealthy Indian barrister and politician, Motilal Nehru, Nehru became a leader of the left wing of the Congress Pa rty when still fairly young.Rising to become Congress President, under the mentorship of Mahatma Gandhi, Nehru was a charismatic and radical leader, advocating complete independence from the British Empire. In the long struggle for Indian independence, in which he was a key player, Nehru was eventually recognized as Gandhi's political heir. Throughout his life, Nehru was also an advocate for Fabian socialism and the public sector as the means by which long-standing challenges of economic development could be addressed by poorer nations. Jawaharlal Nehru was born to Motilal Nehru (1861–1931) and Swaroop Rani (1863–1954) in a Kashmiri Pandit family.The Nehru family – Motilal Nehru is seated in the center, and standing (L to R) are Jawaharlal Nehru, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Krishna Hutheesing, Indira Gandhi, and Ranjit Pandit; Seated: Swaroop Rani, Motilal Nehru and Kamala Nehru (circa 1927). Nehru was educated in India and Britain. In England, he attended the indepen dent boy's school, Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge. Jawaharlal Nehru at Harrow, where he was also known as Joe Nehru. During his time in Britain, Nehru was also known as Joe Nehru. [5][6][7][8][9][10] On 8 February, 1916, Nehru married seventeen year old Kamala Kaul. In the irst year of the marriage, Kamala gave birth to their only child, Indira Priyadarshini. [edit] Life and career Nehru raised the flag of independent India in New Delhi on 15 August 1947, the day India gained Independence.Nehru's appreciation of the virtues of parliamentary democracy, secularism and liberalism, coupled with his concerns for the poor and underprivileged, are recognised to have guided him in formulating socialist policies that influence India to this day. They also reflect the socialist origins of his worldview. His daughter, Indira Gandhi, and grandson, Rajiv Gandhi, also served as Prime Ministers of India. edit] Successor to Gandhi On 15 January 1941 Gandhi said, â€Å"Some say Pandit Nehru and I were estranged. It will require much more than difference of opinion to estrange us. We had differences from the time we became co-workers and yet I have said for some years and say so now that not Rajaji but Jawaharlal will be my successor. â€Å"[11] [edit] India's first Prime Minister Teen Murti Bhavan, Nehru's residence as Prime Minister, now a museum in his memory. Nehru and his colleagues had been released as the British Cabinet Mission arrived to propose plans for transfer of power.Once elected, Nehru headed an interim government, which was impaired by outbreaks of communal violence and political disorder, and the opposition of the Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who were demanding a separate Muslim state of Pakistan. After failed bids to form coalitions, Nehru reluctantly supported the partition of India, according to a plan released by the British on 3 June 1947. He took office as the Prime Minister of India on 15 August, and delivered his inaugural address titled â€Å"A Tryst With Destiny† â€Å"Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes hen we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance. It is fitting that at this solemn moment we take the pledge of dedication to the service of India and her people and to the still larger cause of humanity. â€Å"[12] However, this period was marked with intense communal violence.This violence swept across the Punjab region, Delhi, Bengal and other parts of India. Nehru conducted joint tours[citation needed] with Pakistani leaders to encourage peace and calm angry and disillusioned refugees. Nehru would work with Maulana Azad and other Muslim leaders to safeguard and encourage Muslims to remain in India. The violence of the time deeply affected Nehru, who called for a ceasefire[citation needed] and UN intervention to stop the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. Fearing communal reprisals, Nehru also hesitated in supporting the annexation of Hyderabad State.In the years following independence, Nehru frequently turned to his daughter Indira to look after him and manage his personal affairs. Under his leadership, the Congress won an overwhelming majority in the elections of 1952. Indira moved into Nehru's official residence to attend to him and became his constant companion in his travels across India and the world. Indira would virtually become Nehru's chief of staff. Nehru's study in Teen Murti Bhavan. [edit] Economic policies Nehru presided over the introduction of a modified, Indian version of state planning and control over the economy.Creating the Planning commission of India, Nehru drew up the first Five-Year Plan in 1951, which charted the gov ernment's investments in industries and agriculture. Increasing business and income taxes, Nehru envisaged a mixed economy in which the government would manage strategic industries such as mining, electricity and heavy industries, serving public interest and a check to private enterprise. Nehru pursued land redistribution and launched programmes to build irrigation canals, dams and spread the use of fertilizers to increase agricultural roduction. He also pioneered a series of community development programs aimed at spreading diverse cottage industries and increasing efficiency into rural India. While encouraging the construction of large dams (which Nehru called the â€Å"new temples of India†), irrigation works and the generation of hydroelectricity, Nehru also launched India's programme to harness nuclear energy. For most of Nehru's term as prime minister, India would continue to face serious food shortages despite progress and increases in agricultural production.Nehru's i ndustrial policies, summarised in the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956, encouraged the growth of diverse manufacturing and heavy industries,[13] yet state planning, controls and regulations began to impair productivity, quality and profitability. Although the Indian economy enjoyed a steady rate of growth, called Hindu rate of growth at 2. 5% per annum, chronic unemployment amidst widespread poverty continued to plague the population. [edit] Education and social reform Jawaharlal Nehru was a passionate advocate of education for India's children and youth, believing it essential for India's future progress.His government oversaw the establishment of many institutions of higher learning, including the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, the Indian Institutes of Technology and the Indian Institutes of Management. Nehru also outlined a commitment in his five-year plans to guarantee free and compulsory primary education to all of India's children. For this purpose, Nehru oversaw the creation of mass village enrollment programmes and the construction of thousands of schools. Nehru also launched initiatives such as the provision of free milk and meals to children in order to fight malnutrition.Adult education centres, vocational and technical schools were also organised for adults, especially in the rural areas. Under Nehru, the Indian Parliament enacted many changes to Hindu law to criminalize caste discrimination and increase the legal rights and social freedoms of women[14][15][16] [17] A system of reservations in government services and educational institutions was created to eradicate the social inequalities and disadvantages faced by peoples of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Nehru also championed secularism and religious harmony, increasing the representation of minorities in government. edit] National security and foreign policy See also: Role of India in Non-Aligned Movement Nehru led newly independent India from 1947 to 1964, during its first years of freedom from British rule. Both the United States and the Soviet Union competed to make India an ally throughout the Cold War. On the international scene, Nehru was a champion of pacifism and a strong supporter of the United Nations. He pioneered the policy of non-alignment and co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement of nations professing neutrality between the rival blocs of nations led by the U. S. and the U. S.S. R. Recognising the People's Republic of China soon after its founding (while most of the Western bloc continued relations with the Republic of China), Nehru argued for its inclusion in the United Nations and refused to brand the Chinese as the aggressors in their conflict with Korea. [18] He sought to establish warm and friendly relations with China in 1950, and hoped to act as an intermediary to bridge the gulf and tensions between the communist states and the Western bloc. Meanwhile, Nehru had promised in 1948 to hold a plebiscite in Kashmir under the auspic es of the U.N. but, as Pakistan failed to pull back troops in accordance with the UN resolution and as Nehru grew increasingly wary of the U. N. , he declined to hold a plebiscite in 1953. He ordered the arrest of the Kashmiri politician Sheikh Abdullah, whom he had previously supported but now suspected of harbouring separatist ambitions; Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad replaced him. His policy of pacifism and appeasement with respect to China also came unraveled when border disputes led to the Sino-Indian war in 1962.Jawaharlal Nehru (right) talks to Pakistan prime minister Muhammad Ali Bogra (left) during his 1953 visit to Karachi. Nehru was hailed by many for working to defuse global tensions and the threat of nuclear weapons. [19] He commissioned the first study of the human effects of nuclear explosions, and campaigned ceaselessly for the abolition of what he called â€Å"these frightful engines of destruction. † He also had pragmatic reasons for promoting de-nuclearisation, fea ring that a nuclear arms race would lead to over-militarisation that would be unaffordable for developing countries such as his own. 20] In 1956 he had criticised the joint invasion of the Suez Canal by the British, French and Israelis. Suspicion and distrust cooled relations between India and the U. S. , which suspected Nehru of tacitly supporting the Soviet Union. Accepting the arbitration of the UK and World Bank, Nehru signed the Indus Water Treaty in 1960 with Pakistani ruler Ayub Khan to resolve long-standing disputes about sharing the resources of the major rivers of the Punjab region. [edit] Final years Nehru with Ashoke Kumar Sen, S.Radhakrishnan and Bidhan Chandra RoyNehru had led the Congress to a major victory in the 1957 elections, but his government was facing rising problems and criticism. Disillusioned by intra-party corruption and bickering, Nehru contemplated resigning but continued to serve. The election of his daughter Indira as Congress President in 1959 aroused criticism for alleged nepotism[citation needed], although actually Nehru had disapproved of her election, partly because he considered it smacked of â€Å"dynastism†; he said, indeed it was â€Å"wholly undemocratic and an undesirable thing†, and refused her a position in his cabinet. 21] Indira herself was at loggerheads with her father over policy; most notably, she used his oft-stated personal deference to the Congress Working Committee to push through the dismissal of the Communist Party of India government in the state of Kerala, over his own objections. [21] Nehru began to be frequently embarrassed by her ruthlessness and disregard for parliamentary tradition, and was â€Å"hurt† by what he saw as an assertiveness with no purpose other than to stake out an identity independent of her father. [4]Although the Pancha Sila (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence) was the basis of the 1954 Sino-Indian border treaty, in later years, Nehru's foreign policy suff ered through increasing Chinese assertiveness over border disputes and Nehru's decision to grant political asylum to the 14th Dalai Lama. After years of failed negotiations, Nehru authorized the Indian Army to invade Goa in 1961, and then he annexed it to India. It increased his popularity, but he was criticized the use of military force. In the 1962 elections, Nehru led the Congress to victory yet with a diminished majority.Opposition parties ranging from the right-wing Bharatiya Jana Sangh and Swatantra Party, socialists and the Communist Party of India performed well. Public viewing of Nehru's body, which lies in state, in 1964; the gun carriage used for his state funeral was later used for the state funeral of Mother TeresaSince 1959, and this accelerated in 1961, Nehru adopted the â€Å"Forward Policy† of setting up military outposts in disputed areas of the Sino-Indian border, including in 43 outposts in territory not previously controlled by India. 22] China attacked s ome of these outposts, and thus the Sino-Indian War began, which India technically lost, but China gained no territory as it withdrew to pre-war lines. The war exposed the weaknesses of India's military, and Nehru was widely criticised for his government's insufficient attention to defence. In response, Nehru sacked the defence minister Krishna Menon and sought U. S. military aid, but Nehru's health began declining steadily, and he spent months recuperating in Kashmir through 1963.Some historians attribute this dramatic decline to his surprise and chagrin over the Sino-Indian War, which he perceived as a betrayal of trust. [23] Upon his return from Kashmir in May 1964, Nehru suffered a stroke and later a heart attack. He died in the early hours of 27 May 1964. Nehru was cremated in accordance with Hindu rites at the Shantivana on the banks of the Yamuna River, witnessed by hundreds of thousands of mourners who had flocked into the streets of Delhi and the cremation grounds. [edit] L egacy Nehru's statue in Aldwych, London.As India's first Prime minister and external affairs minister, Jawaharlal Nehru played a major role in shaping modern India's government and political culture along with sound foreign policy. He is praised for creating a system providing universal primary education, reaching children in the farthest corners of rural India. Nehru's education policy is also credited for the development of world-class educational institutions such as the All India Institute of Medical Sciences,[24] Indian Institutes of Technology,[25] and the Indian Institutes of Management. Nehru was a great man†¦ Nehru gave to Indians an image of themselves that I don't think others might have succeeded in doing. † – Sir Isaiah Berlin[26] In addition, Nehru's stance as an unfailing nationalist led him to also implement policies which stressed commonality among Indians while still appreciating regional diversities. This proved particularly important as post-Ind ependence differences surfaced since British withdrawal from the subcontinent prompted regional leaders to no longer relate to one another as allies against a common adversary.While differences of culture and, especially, language threatened the unity of the new nation, Nehru established programs such as the National Book Trust and the National Literary Academy which promoted the translation of regional literatures between languages and also organized the transfer of materials between regions. In pursuit of a single, unified India, Nehru warned, â€Å"Integrate or perish. â€Å"[27] [edit] Commemoration Nehru hands out sweets to children in Nongpoh Jawaharlal Nehru on a 1989 USSR commemorative stamp.In his lifetime, Jawaharlal Nehru enjoyed an iconic status in India and was widely admired across the world for his idealism and statesmanship. His birthday, 14 November, is celebrated in India as Baal Divas (Children's Day) in recognition of his lifelong passion and work for the welfa re, education and development of children and young people. Children across India remember him as Chacha Nehru (Uncle Nehru). Nehru remains a popular symbol of the Congress Party which frequently celebrates his memory.Congress leaders and activists often emulate his style of clothing, especially the Gandhi cap, and his mannerisms. Nehru's ideals and policies continue to shape the Congress Party's manifesto and core political philosophy. An emotional attachment to his legacy was instrumental in the rise of his daughter Indira to leadership of the Congress Party and the national government. Many documentaries about Nehru's life have been produced. He has also been portrayed in fictionalised films.The canonical performance is probably that of Roshan Seth, who played him three times: in Richard Attenborough's 1982 film Gandhi, Shyam Benegal's 1988 television series Bharat Ek Khoj, based on Nehru's The Discovery of India, and in a 2007 TV film entitled The Last Days of the Raj. [28] In K etan Mehta's film Sardar, Nehru was portrayed by Benjamin Gilani. Nehru's personal preference for the sherwani ensured that it continues to be considered formal wear in North India today; aside from lending his name to a kind of cap, the Nehru jacket is named in his honour due to his preference for that style.Numerous public institutions and memorials across India are dedicated to Nehru's memory. The Jawaharlal Nehru University in Delhi is among the most prestigious universities in India. The Jawaharlal Nehru Port near the city of Mumbai is a modern port and dock designed to handle a huge cargo and traffic load. Nehru's residence in Delhi is preserved as the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library. The Nehru family homes at Anand Bhavan and Swaraj Bhavan are also preserved to commemorate Nehru and his family's legacy. edit] Writings Nehru was a prolific writer in English and wrote a number of books, such as The Discovery of India, Glimpses of World History, and his autobiography, Towards Freedom. [edit] Awards In 1955 Nehru was awarded with Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour. [29] [edit] Criticism D. D. Kosambi, a well-known Marxist historian, criticized Nehru in his article for the bourgeoisie class exploitation of Nehru's socialist ideology. [30]Jaswant Singh, a former leader of Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), viewed Nehru, not Mohammad Ali Jinnah, as causing the partition of India, mostly referring to his highly centralised policies for an independent India in 1947, which Jinnah opposed in favour of a more decentralised India. The split between the two was among the causes of partition. It is believed that personal animosity between the two leaders led to the partition of India. [31][32] Singh was later expelled from the BJP for having favourable views on Jinnah. [

Why the arab countries are not paying attention to the mental health Essay

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Special Agent for the Office of Inspector General for U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development - Essay Example Today, various agencies of the United States government are tasked to implement goals of the government from the federal to the local level. Prior to the creation of these agencies, governing rules and regulations are in place to guide the bodies respectively with the common intention to uphold the rights and privileges of the United States citizens. However, it is also the role of the government to protect its agencies and programs in order to make them sustainable and useful for the people. The growth and increase of staff and employees of bureaucracies makes agencies prone to small as well as large-scale fraudulent activities from the seemingly innocent loss of office supplies to massive questionable contracts that are too obvious to keep away public attention. Thus, the creation of monitoring bodies that aside the main cabinets with its officials and employees, secondary agencies like shadows were also put in place to check and balance the activities of these agencies whether these were in the benefit of the government and the public it serves, or otherwise. This focuses on the analysis of the tasks of the Special Agent for the Office of Inspector General for U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, that is aimed to address the rapid urbanization and the development of housing and community. It is then discusses how their agents or employees are basically hired to prevent waste, fraud, abuse as well as mismanagement of government programs and operations withi n their operating agency.

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